WHAT ARE THE ORIGINS OF MODERN DAY ANTIMICROBIALS?
Whether it's penicillin, methicillin, or rimantadine resistance, it dates back to Alexander Fleming and his unintentional, yet revolutionary discovery. Explore the timeline below to see that and other key points regarding the history of antimicrobial resistance.
TIMELINE
1928
Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin, a drug that is able to penetrate the cell walls of bacteria, thus killing the microbe. His discovery kickstarts the era of modern antimicrobials. This medication is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, especially those caused by gram positive bacteria.
1959
Methicillin is introduced to treat infections caused by penicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus. Like penicillin, methicillin prevents the synthesis of cell walls by preventing cross-linkage between polymer chains within the walls.
1963
Rimantadine (a synthetic antiviral drug) was discovered by William W. Prichard. This medication has the ability to prevent and treat influenza A. In the presence of Rimatadine, the viral replication process is inhibited as the virus is unable to uncoat.
2001
Phage therapy, first used in 1919, is reconsidered as a way to kill bacteria. Phage therapy involves bacteriophages, viruses that infect and kill bacteria cells. Although this approach was abandoned after the discovery of penicillin, it has made a comeback and is now one of the leading solutions to antimicrobial resistance.
2009
100% of the 2009 influenza A samples were shown to be resistant to rimantadine. The drug is no longer used to treat influenza. Resistance in rimantadine is the result of an amino acid substitution on the M2 protein of influenza.
2011
Antimicrobial resistance was pushed into the spotlight and became the theme of the WHO's World Health Day. The World Health Organization also published a six-point policy package with the intention of providing countries with tools to combat antimicrobial resistance. Overall, WHO is collaborating with multiple nations in order to guide the response against resistance.
2012
AmpliPhi Biosciences Corporation acquires a Sydney-based phage company and becomes the leading researchers focusing on phage therapy as a method of combating the growing threat of drug resistance. With this merger, Ampliphi plans to further its drug development programs and continue to seek alliances with pharmaceutical companies to advance bacteriophage treatments.
2015
President Obama proposes a historic $1.2 billion budget to take action against antibiotic resistance. This budget, scheduled to take place in 2016, nearly doubles the current funding level for 2015. This proposed investment will result in new developments that could drastically transform the methods of preventing the transmission and emergence of drug resistance.
1940s
Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain research and mass-produce penicillin, with funds from the U.S. and British governments. Mass production began after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. By 1944 enough of the drug had been produced to treat all wounded forces.
1960s
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) appears and becomes increasingly common. MRSA progresses substantially within the first 48 hours and includes symptoms such as fevers, rashes, and red bumps that grow larger as the infection progresses
1996
NARMS was established as a partnership between the FDA, CDC, and USDA to track antibiotic resistance in food-borne bacteria from humans, retail meats, and animals. NARMS also works with similar programs in other nations to monitor trends in resistance across the globe. The FDA has used data from NARMS make decisions regarding antimicrobials use in agriculture, such as the use of fluoroquinolones in poultry.
2007
94,000 severe MRSA infections were reported. Most MRSA infections occur in individuals who have been in hospitals settings as the microbes there are more exposed to antimicrobials and are thus more resistant. The bacteria responsible are generally harmless unless they enter the body through a break in the skin.
2009
An outbreak of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella Newport in ground beef produced by Beef Packers, a subsidiary of Cargill, resulted in at least 40 illnesses in four states. The company eventually recalled 825,769 pounds of ground beef.
2012
Hand sanitizer sales totaled $173.5 million. Despite the craze hand sanitizers are no more effective than soap and water in stopping the spread of colds, flu and other respiratory diseases. Additionally, they eliminate good bacteria play a role in creating resistant, harmful ones.
2013
An estimated 480,000 people worldwide developed Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis. MDR-TB has been discovered in 92 countries across the globe. Resistance to TB drugs occurs when these medications are misused or mismanaged. By prescribing the wrong treatment or the wrong dose, the bacteria is not completely eliminated and returns with mutations that allow them to be resistant.
